Management of poultry manure so that it is not conducive to fly breeding is the most effective means of control. Fresh poultry manure generally contains 60 to 80 percent moisture. Flies can readily breed in manure with a moisture content of 50 to 85 percent. Manure moisture below 50 percent is less suitable for fly breeding, and fly breeding usually does not occur at 30 percent moisture or less.

Dry manure management is practiced under two types of systems: 1) frequent manure removal (at least weekly) and 2) long-term, in-house storage of manure. Frequent manure removal systems to prevent fly breeding are based upon weekly (or more frequent) removal and field spreading
it or transporting it to a holding area/composting site for drying/composting. This can be effective if done regularly and thoroughly, but it does require adequate and available agricultural land where manure can be spread or suitable facilities for holding manure or for composting. With in-house storage of manure, efforts should be made to reduce manure moisture below 50 percent (preferably to about 30 percent or less) and to maintain this level.

In either system, any practice that limits moisture in the droppings or aids rapid drying is helpful. A few practices to follow include:

       1. Prevent leaks in waterers. Inspect the pit daily to check for leaks, and repair them when found.
       2. When the water table is high or there is a danger of water running in from the outside, adjust the floor/grade relationship so that the floor of the house is higher than the surrounding ground and water runs away from the building.
       3. Provide abundant ventilation both in the manure pit for effective drying and in the house for bird comfort.
       4. Avoid excessively high house temperatures that encourage abnormal water intake.
       5. Avoid rations that are laxative.
       6. Use absorbent litter where practical.
       7. Maintain proper insulation on water lines to prevent condensation.

In facilities designed for in-house storage of manure, accumulated droppings, if left undisturbed with adequate ventilation and free of additional moisture, will form a cone-shaped mound under the cages and allow for natural composting.

Undisturbed manure accumulations normally support large populations of parasites and predators of breeding flies. These parasite/predator populations primarily consist of predaceous beetles, mites, and parasitic wasps. The build-up of these natural fly enemies is usually slower than that of flies. Populations high enough to substantially benefit fly control can develop only if the manure is not disturbed for relatively long periods of time. To encourage parasites and predators:

• Maintain dry manure,
• Remove manure in cooler months when flies are less active,
• Stagger manure removal over a few weeks to preserve beneficial insect populations, and,
• Minimize the use of insecticides in the manure pit/storage
  area.

Additional sanitation practices are also important in fly control. Remove dead birds daily and dispose of them properly. Minimize accumulations of spilled feed and broken eggs that attract flies and pest beetles. On the outside, keep grass and weeds adjacent to poultry houses mowed to eliminate resting areas for adult flies and to allow for adequate air movement around the buildings.

Cyromazine (Larvadex) is the only feed-through insecticide for breeding flies registered for caged layers. It is an insect growth inhibitor and kills fly larvae before development is completed. Its selective mode of action does not adversely affect natural fly predators. Larvadex premix is blended into the egg layer ration at the rate of 1 pound of premix per ton of feed for fly control. It passes through the bird’s digestive tract and is present in the manure essentially in its unaltered state. It has no adverse effect on feed palatability or consumption, or on eggs or meat.

Cyromazine will give best results when intergraded into a well-managed fly control program. Use of this product too frequently can be expensive. Also, where it has been used extensively, high levels of fly resistance have been reported. It is best to use Larvadex after a complete manure. After cleanout, it can be fed to the birds continuously for 4 to 6 weeks. Its use after that should be avoided until the next cleanout. This will reduce the chance of development of fly resistance. If adult flies should become a problem during its use or after the time it is used, then proper adult fly control measures should be carried out.

A standardized, quantitative method for monitoring fly populations should be part of a fly control program for making control decisions. Visual observations of fly populations alone are subjective. Of sampling methods available, the use of spot cards and/or sticky ribbons is most widely accepted.

Spot cards are 3 by 5 inch white file cards placed in a poultry house upstairs in high-rise or shallow pit caged layer operations and/or in the manure pit. They can be suspended from strings or fastened to support posts, ceilings, or other areas where flies tend to settle. Placement is also best where there is little air movement and where workers or equipment will not disturb the cards. Several cards can be placed in a facility, with date of placement and location noted on the cards.

Once placed, cards should be left for a period of 7 days and replaced with new cards at the same place each week. The number of “fly specks” on the exposed side (one side) of each card should be counted and recorded in a record keeping notebook. Generally, 100 or more spots per card indicates the need for fly control measures. The use of spot cards is a simple, cost-effective, and widely adapted method for assessing fly populations week after week. It also provides documentation of fly activity over the course of time.

Sticky fly ribbons/tapes are another means of monitoring fly activity in a facility. One method to use them is to select locations to hang them up for weekly intervals. However, used this way, they often tend to dry and get dirty over time and become less effective in capturing flies. A more suitable way to use them is to take a fresh tape, hold it out in front at waist level, and walk at a steady pace the length of the house down one walkway between cages and back another walkway. Flies caught on the tape can then be counted and recorded. One to two fly tapes should be used per house at least once a week. Generally, 100 or more flies caught per tape indicates the need for fly control measures.

Two species of beetles that commonly inhabit poultry manure and litter accumulations are the lesser mealworm or darkling beetle (Alphitobius diaperinus) and the hide beetle (Dermestes maculatus). Adults and larvae of both species can become extremely abundant in poultry manure and litter, especially in drier poultry wastes that accumulate in poultry buildings.

On one hand, these beetles can be considered beneficial in that they compete in the same habitat as house flies and can help aerate and dry manure, making it unsuitable for house fly development. On the other hand, both beetles can cause extensive damage as mature larvae bore into structural materials seeking areas to pupate and complete their development. They are also known as potential vectors of several poultry disease pathogens (e.g., acute leukosis-March’s disease, fowl pox, numerous pathogenic bacteria, and poultry tapeworms). Large beetle populations, especially of darkling beetles, may become a public nuisance at cleanout time because of adult beetle migration from fields where manure is spread into nearby residential areas.

Table 2. Insecticides For Beetle Control
Method of Application	Active Ingredient/Product
Residual - Premis	Cyfluthrin (Tempo) - spray, dust Lambda-cyhalothrin (Demand) - spray Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) - spray dust Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) - dichlorvos (Vapona) - (Ravap) - spray Carbaryl (Sevin) - spray, dust Pyridine (pyri-Shield, Archer) - spray
Manure/Litter Treatment	Cyfluthrin (Tempo) - spray, dust Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) - spray dust Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) + dichlorvos (Vapona) - (Ravap) - spray Carbaryl (Sevin) - spray, dust Pyridine (pyri-Shield, Archer) - spray
Bait	Carbaryl (Sevin) Boric acid (SafeCide)

Several species of lice and mites make up the complex of external parasites of poultry. The physical damage caused by these pests may result in lowered egg production, reduced weight gain, and carcass downgrading. Also important is the nuisance to people handling eggs that are crawling with mites.

There are several species of chewing lice that may attack chickens, turkeys, ducks, and other domestic fowl. These lice do not suck blood. Most species chew dry skin scales, feathers, or scabs on the skin. Some species may ingest blood exuding from irritated skin.

Poultry lice are wingless, six-legged insects with a flattened body and broadly rounded head. Lice eggs are laid on the host’s feathers, and most species complete a generation from egg to adult in 2 to 7 weeks. The entire life cycle is spent on the host, and lice are not found elsewhere except by accident. They are considered host specific and feed on poultry only. With normal poultry management, lice are seldom encountered except in small farm flocks or in floor-raised birds.

Chicken Mite (Dermanysus gallinae)

The chicken mite feeds by sucking blood from the birds at night. It hides in cracks and crevices in the poultry house during the day. If you examine crack and crevice areas, you may see masses of these small mites, their eggs, and the silvery skins cast by the immature mites. Chicken mites are more of a warm weather (summer) pest and may go unnoticed unless you examine birds at night. In heavily infested flocks, the birds have pale combs and wattles. They become droopy and weak, may have feather loss, and may become more susceptible to other parasites and to disease. Chicken mites probably prefer to feed on chickens but will feed on all kinds of domestic fowl (including turkeys and ducks) and wild birds.

Northern Fowl Mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum)

The northern fowl mite is the most important and common external parasite infesting poultry. It infests a wide variety of domestic fowl and wild birds and is found throughout many temperate regions of the world.

These small blackish-brown pests spend their entire life cycle on a host. They congregate near the vent, tail, and, occasionally, the back. Adult female mites lay their eggs on the host bird in the fluff feathers. The entire life cycle can be completed within a week under favorable conditions Populations can rise rapidly after a bird has been initially infested. When conditions are optimal, newly infested birds may support mite populations in excess of 20,000 per bird by 9 to 10 weeks. The feathers will darken because of the excrement and eggs from the mites. Scabbing of the skin may develop in the vent region.

Severe anemia and death may result in birds infested with large northern fowl mite populations. Mite-stressed birds usually reduce food intake, lose weight rapidly, and exhibit a pale pink comb, and there can be lowered egg production in layers (up to 10 to 15% in higher infestations). Mites can also annoy egg handlers and other personnel.

Northern fowl mites are more of a problem in cool weather (winter), but they may be found on birds the year round. Also, even though they normally live on the host, northern fowl mites can survive for 2 to 3 weeks, at room temperature, off the host. Therefore, removing birds from an infested house and replacing them 2 weeks later may not solve the pest problem.

Northern fowl mites are normally transmitted from bird to bird by contact or simply by crawling to new hosts. Mites may be introduced into a clean house by introduction of infested birds or by wild birds. Populations can readily build up on young birds 20 to 30 weeks of age. Birds older than 40 weeks usually do not support many mites.

The detection of an initial low mite population that can be controlled effectively and economically is important in a mite-monitoring program. With early detection, only part of the caged-layer house may need to be treated. At least 10 randomly selected birds from each cage row in the entire house should be monitored weekly. The vent area should be examined under a bright light, and the feathers parted to reveal the mites. Cages with one or two birds often have more mites than those with more birds, and, because of variation in susceptibility among birds, one bird may have mites while its cage mates have few or no mites.

The following index can be used for estimating infestation levels:

• 0 = no mites
• 1 = 1 to 50 mites (light)
• 2 = 50 to 1000 mites - small clumps of mites on skin and feathers with beginning frass on some feathers (moderate)
• 3 = 1000 to 25,000 mites - more frass accumulation on feathers and around vent (moderate to heavy)
• 4 = 25,000+ mites - numerous large clumps of mites on skin and feathers with dense frass on at least 25% of feathers and skin pocketed with scabs (heavy)

Control efforts should be considered when index ratings of 2 or higher are detected.

Sanitation and cleanliness help prevent infestations of lice and mites. A poultry house should be clean and parasite free before new birds are moved in. New birds should be checked and free of infestation before being brought in. Once a flock is in the facility, care should be taken to prevent contamination from workers and equipment. Mites and lice can be transferred from an infested house to an uninfested house by contaminated egg flats, bird crates, and other equipment. Wild birds and rodents can harbor and disseminate these parasites as well (especially mites).

The decision to treat a flock is influenced by age of birds, time of year, and distribution of the infestation. It is not economical to treat older birds, because external parasite populations are unlikely to increase as compared to a younger flock. With lice and northern fowl mites, infestations are likely to increase in cooler months.

Chemical control of lice and northern fowl mites requires direct pesticide application to the bird, especially the vent region for northern fowl mites. Use sufficient pressure (100 –125 psi) to penetrate the feathers. A thorough premise treatment should be made as well, especially for chicken mite infestations.

Recommended pesticides for lice and mite control are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Insecticides/Acaricides For Lice and Mite Control
Method of Application	Active Ingredient/Product
Bird Treatment	Permethrin (Ectiban, Atroban, others) - spray, dust Malathion - spray Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) - spray dust Carbaryl (Sevin) - spray, dust
Premise Treatment (for Chicken Mite)	Permethrin (Ectiban, Atroban, others) - spray, dust Malathion - spray Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) - spray dust Tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) + dichlorvos (Vapona) - (Ravap) - spray Carbaryl (Sevin) - spray, dust

Chiggers that attack poultry are the same tiny larval stage of mite that attack people. They attach themselves to the skin of poultry, causing abscesses and extensive areas of inflammation.
Infested birds may become droopy and emaciated, and refuse to eat. Chiggers feed in clusters that may result in scabby lesions that require 3 weeks to heal after the chiggers leave the host. These lesions result in the downgrading of the bird carcass if slaughtered at this time. Because chiggers are found on grass, weed, and other low growing vegetation, they are a problem to poultry on pasture.

To control chiggers on poultry range or pens, carbaryl or malathion (sprays or dust) can be used.

For all insecticides/acaricides listed in this publication, read and follow all label directions for proper mixing instructions, application rates, and precautions. It is illegal to use any pesticide in any manner inconsistent with the label. Any trade names listed are for convenience only. No endorsement of products is intended, nor is criticism of unnamed products implied.